Introduction
Geography and Geopolitics brought India and the USSR (Russia) together and it developed into a time-tested close partnership. Throughout history, India and Russia have shared cultural affinities, strategic interests, and mutual respect, which have contributed to the enduring nature of their relationship. Despite changing geopolitical dynamics, the ties between India and Russia continue to be characterised by cooperation, friendship, and shared aspirations for peace and development.
Historical Perspective
Historical interactions between India and Russia spanning several centuries can be traced back to ancient times through trade routes, cultural exchanges, and diplomatic contacts. The ancient Silk Road connected India with Central Asia, facilitating trade and cultural exchange between the Indian subcontinent and regions that later became part of the Russian Empire. In recent times, Indo-Russian relations have evolved through various phases since the establishment of diplomatic ties between the two countries in 1947.
Engagement Phase (Pre-Independence). During the 19th century, the Russian Empire expanded its influence in Central Asia and established diplomatic relations with various Indian princely states. Russian explorers, scholars, and diplomats travelled to India, fostering cultural exchange and scholarly engagement. The Russian Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent establishment of the Soviet Union in 1922 marked a significant turning point in Russian history. India’s struggle for independence from British colonial rule coincided with the rise of the Soviet Union.
Warm-up Phase (Post Independence). India gained independence from British rule in 1947, and the Soviet Union was among the first countries to establish diplomatic relations with independent India. The Soviet Union supported India’s development projects and assisted India in various fields, including defence, science, and technology. In 1960 Indo-Russian friendship was declared and military cooperation commenced between the two countries. In 1962 Russian stance was neutral stance in the India-China war (China Brother – India Close Friend). Post-1965 Indo-Pakistan war, Russia facilitated the Tashkent Treaty in 1966.
Friendship & Cooperation Phase (Cold War Period). The Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation was signed in 1971. The signing of the treaty marked a significant milestone and further strengthened the bilateral relations. During this period, India relied heavily on the Soviet Union for military and economic assistance, especially during times of conflict (1971) with Pakistan.
Preoccupation Phase (Post-USSR Dissolution). With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Indo-Russian relations entered a period of shift. Russia was preoccupied with predicaments associated with the breakup. India sought to maintain its strategic relationship with Russia while also diversifying its foreign policy and strengthening ties with other countries. However, the bilateral trade and economic cooperation between India and Russia continued to expand during this period.
Revival Phase. In the year 2000, the Declaration on Strategic Partnership was signed. Both countries reaffirmed their commitment to the strategic partnership, and it laid the foundation for enhanced cooperation in various fields, including defence, energy, and culture. In 2010, the relationship was upgraded to a special and privileged partnership (including political, security, trade, economy, defence, science and technology and cultural cooperation).
Bilateral relations between India and Russia have continued to evolve in the 21st century, characterised by strategic cooperation and economic engagement. Defence cooperation remains a key aspect of the relationship, with Russia being a major supplier of defence equipment to India. Economic ties have expanded, although there is potential for further growth and diversification. Both countries have maintained close coordination on regional and global issues.
Pillars of the Relationship
The relationship between India and Russia is built on several key pillars that have sustained their strategic partnership over the years. These pillars collectively reflect the multifaceted nature of the India-Russia relationship.
Historical Trust. Historically the foundation of the India-Russia relationship lies in their strategic partnership, which is characterised by mutual trust, respect, and shared interests in regional and global affairs. The two countries have consistently supported each other’s strategic concerns and have cooperated closely on issues of mutual importance, including defence, security, and counter-terrorism.
Defence Cooperation. Defence cooperation has been a central pillar of the India-Russia relationship. It is a cornerstone of bilateral relations, with India being a major importer of Russian defence equipment. Russia has been a longstanding supplier of defence equipment to India, including aircraft, tanks, submarines, and missiles. The two countries regularly engage in joint military exercises, technology transfer, and defence industry collaboration.
Economy and Trade Engagement. While economic ties between India and Russia have not reached the same level as their defence cooperation, efforts are underway to enhance economic engagement. Both countries engage each other in sectors such as energy, pharmaceuticals, infrastructure, and information technology for collaboration and investment. Energy cooperation is an increasingly important aspect of the India-Russia relationship. Russia is a major supplier of crude oil and natural gas to India, and both countries have explored opportunities for collaboration in oil and gas exploration, production, and transportation. The signing of long-term energy agreements and the development of strategic energy projects reflect the growing energy partnership between India and Russia.
Cultural Exchanges (Soft Power). Cultural and people-to-people exchanges play a vital role in fostering understanding and friendship between India and Russia. The two countries share historical and cultural ties dating back centuries, which serve as a strong foundation for cultural cooperation, academic exchanges, and tourism. Initiatives such as the Festival of India in Russia and the Russian Cultural Festival in India promote cultural exchange and strengthen bilateral relations at the grassroots level.
Mutual Geopolitical Interests. Regular high-level strategic consultations and diplomatic engagement form the backbone of the India-Russia relationship. Both countries maintain close coordination on regional and global issues, including peace and security, multilateralism, and counter-terrorism. Mechanisms such as the annual India-Russia Summit, joint commissions, and strategic dialogues provide platforms for discussing bilateral cooperation and addressing common challenges.
Despite evolving geopolitical dynamics, India and Russia continue to prioritise their strategic partnership and explore new avenues for collaboration in the 21st century.
Defence Cooperation
Defence cooperation between India and USSR/Russia is one of the main pillars of bilateral relations. It spans several decades and encompasses various areas of collaboration, including arms sales, joint military exercises, technology transfer, and defence industry cooperation.
In the 1960s, India needed defence equipment desperately. Supplies from the USA and West were not assured as they had a closer association with Pakistan. USSR found it attractive strategically and geopolitically to engage India. It was a mutually beneficial development. India needed military modernisation and the USSR saw a promising and strategic partner to counterbalance the USA, Pakistan and China.
The military equipment was made available by the USSR to India at a cheaper cost, with deferred payments, low-interest rates and easy payment options like payment in kind of finished goods and products. Technology was also shared with the transfer of technology and allowing licensed production. Over the years, India became the principal defence market of the USSR.
For four decades (1960 to 2000) India was reliant on the USSR for military needs. Post-breakup of the USSR, Issues of Cost, Quality, Delays and Post-sale support cropped up. For Russia, even the China market declined due to Chinese indigenisation. However, India continued to be a reliable market. Hundreds of Russian defence production facilities were kept alive due to Indian contracts. However, the defence cooperation continued with regular engagements, exchanges, exercises, sharing of knowledge and information and training.
Arms Sales. Russia has been a major supplier of defence equipment to India since the early years of their relationship. At one time almost 75-80 % of the defence equipment in India was Russian. India has purchased a wide range of military hardware from Russia, including T-90 tanks, Aircraft Carrier, Mig -21, SU-7, Mig-23, Mig 25, Mig 27, Mig 29, SU-30 fighter aircraft, MI-8, Mi17, Kamov and attack helicopters, a variety of AD weapons including recent S-400 system, An-32, IL-76 and IL-78, and maritime recce aircraft and several air to ground and air to air weapons.
Joint Military Exercises. India and Russia regularly conduct joint military exercises to enhance interoperability and cooperation between their armed forces. These exercises include naval exercises (INDRA Navy), army exercises (INDRA Army), and air force exercises (AVIAINDRA).
Defence Industry Cooperation. India and Russia have pursued defence-industrial cooperation to strengthen their defence capabilities and promote indigenous manufacturing. Initiatives such as joint ventures, technology partnerships, and manufacturing agreements have been established between Indian and Russian defence companies.
Technology Transfer and Co-Development. India and Russia have collaborated on several defence projects involving technology transfer and co-development. Licenced production of MIg-21 aircraft in India is a unique example in the world. The development of the BrahMos missile is another success story, jointly developed by India’s DRDO and Russia’s NPO Mashinostroyeniya.
Challenges and Future Prospects. Despite the longstanding defence partnership, India has diversified its defence procurement and explored partnerships with other countries in recent years. Challenges such as delays in defence projects, cost escalation, and technology gaps have also been encountered. However, India and Russia continue to prioritise defence cooperation and seek to address challenges through dialogue and cooperation. Overall, defence cooperation remains a vital aspect and a key pillar of the India-Russia relationship, contributing to defence modernisation, and strategic partnership between the two countries.
Challenges and Opportunities
Overall, Indo-Russian relations have evolved through different phases, characterised by cooperation in various fields and adaptation to changing global dynamics. The prevailing circumstances and the geo-political world situation present both challenges and opportunities for cooperation. Both countries face challenges in areas such as economic diversification, trade imbalances, and competition in certain markets. While challenges exist, both countries continue to nurture their strategic partnership and explore new avenues for cooperation.
Indian Perspective. In recent years, India’s growing ties with other major powers, such as the United States, have led to speculation about the future trajectory of Indo-Russian relations.
- Indian Ideology. India continues to be a peace-loving country with no territorial ambitions or expansionist desire. It believes in Mutual growth and prosperity (One world – One family – One future). Her main security concern is to safeguard its territory and political sovereignty. India’s international engagements are adapting to the changes taking place in the world. The engagements are Interest-based without joining any camp or military alliance (India to date has not joined any military alliance).
- Indian Compulsions. In recent times, the threat to India has increased due to the rapid modernisation of the Chinese military, its belligerent attitude, aggressive behaviour and collusivity with Pakistan. India is in urgent need to modernise and strengthen its security system and defence forces. It needs the latest technology induction.
- Indian Approach. The Indian approach to dealing with the security challenges includes the promotion of self-reliance (Atmanirbharata) with indigenous R&D and manufacturing. India is also offering to be an alternative destination for “Make for the World”. India while promoting self-reliance is striving to maintain a minimum level of deterrence by procurement from abroad if required. Defence procurement is being carried out by competitive bidding to get the best equipment and deal (maximum bang for the buck) from diverse sources (USA, France, Israel and Europe).
Challenges. Both Russia and India are in a similar situation with threats to their respective interests. From NATO and the USA for Russia and China and Pakistan for India. Another significant factor is the clash of interests between the USA and China. The challenge for Russia and India is not to develop divergent views and interests by getting drawn into the China-USA rivalry.
Mutually Common Concerns. Shared interests in areas such as counter-terrorism, regional stability, and environmental issues continue to underpin the strategic partnership between India and Russia. Areas of mutually common concern are as follows:-
• Non-traditional security threats
• Environmental degradation
• Organised crime network.
• Drug Trafficking.
• Human Trafficking and illegal migration.
• Religious/fundamental insurgencies.
• Cyber security.
• Nuclear terrorism and threats.
• Biological threats and pandemics.
Opportunities. Opportunities include scope for closer cooperation, mutual growth and progress, collective security and sharing of resources, technology, knowledge, and information. Finding common ground and addressing challenges constructively will be essential for sustaining and deepening the India-Russia partnership in the years ahead. Both countries need to strengthen the old pillars and explore and build on new pillars. Unanimity and agreement already exist concerning the following:-
• Disarmament.
• Nuclear Proliferation.
• Terrorism.
• Review of existing multilateral organisations.
• Trans-national crimes.
• Environmental degradation issues.
• Non-traditional security threats.
Way Ahead
India-Russia relations present numerous opportunities for both countries to enhance cooperation and mutual benefit. These opportunities span various sectors and areas of collaboration. A new impetus is required to revitalise the time-tested Indo-Russian friendship.
Approach. Both countries need to avoid getting into the trap of a “with us or against us” mindset and not let the business dealings (Russia’s engagement with China, and Pakistan, and India’s with the USA) come in the way of mutual friendship. Both need to understand each other’s compulsions and engage each other with the aim of mutual and joint development, modernisation, transformation and growth. Suggested areas of enhancing the cooperation are enumerated in the subsequent paragraphs.
Defence Cooperation. Despite challenges, defence cooperation remains a significant opportunity for India and Russia. Russia has a wealth of defence technology and expertise that can contribute to India’s defence modernisation efforts. Russia should not see India only as a defence market but as a development partner with joint R&D, development, design and production with sharing of defence technology and know-how. A symbiotic partnership with collaborative projects, joint ventures, and technology transfer agreements can further deepen defence ties between the two countries. Some other suggestions are:-
• Increase Interoperability with regular multi-service exercises.
• Assist each other in the mitigation of disaster situations arising out of inimical grey zone activities.
• Assist each other in information warfare (Info dominance and narrative formulation).
• Chart out an escalation ladder matrix of defence cooperation for political signalling.
• Joint ventures for unmanned platforms, drones, swarms and anti-drone systems.
Energy Partnership (Oil, Gas and Nuclear). India’s growing energy needs and Russia’s vast energy resources offer opportunities for expanding energy cooperation. Collaboration in areas such as oil and gas exploration, production, and transportation can strengthen energy security and promote sustainable development in both countries. Long-term energy agreements and investment in energy infrastructure projects can deepen the energy partnership between India and Russia. Both countries could form a consortium to make energy-related infrastructure (including nuclear reactor building projects) for the rest of the world
Strategic Support (Diplomatic/Political). India and Russia share common interests in promoting multipolarity, global peace, and stability. Their strategic partnership provides opportunities for cooperation on regional and global issues, including counter-terrorism, non-proliferation, and cyber security. Regular high-level dialogues and consultations can help align their strategic objectives and enhance coordination on international platforms and multilateral forums (UN, BRICS, RIC, G-20, SCO etc). Both should respect each other’s sensitivities. The fear of a military alliance should be dispelled. India has never joined and is not likely to join any military alliance. Quad is not a military alliance, nor is it an Asian NATO (it is not anti-Russia).
Science and Technology. India and Russia have a history of collaboration in science, technology, and innovation. Joint research and development projects, academic exchanges, and technology transfer agreements can foster innovation and address common challenges in sectors such as space exploration, Cyber security, nuclear energy, biotechnology, and information technology. Opportunities also exist in areas of Chips/semiconductors, high-pressure tools, medical equipment, telecom industry, maritime equipment and electronics.
Trade and Economic Diversification. There is immense potential for diversifying economic cooperation between India and Russia beyond the defence sector. Enhancing trade facilitation mechanisms, promoting investment promotion initiatives, and leveraging bilateral agreements can boost economic ties between the two nations. Bilateral trade has already touched 45bn US $ and soon would reach 50 bn US $. The bilateral trade could be further enhanced by:-
• Making the trade and business transactions attractive with “ease of doing business” policies.
• Regaining and maintaining trade balance.
• Besides Govt to Govt transactions, encouraging Private sector (G2G and P2P) engagements.
• Improving connectivity for cargo and personnel (Multi-mode travel corridors).
• Reviewing the Rupee-Rouble exchange system for trade to make it mutually beneficial. It could become a model for the rest of the world to emulate.
• Energising the two wings of the India-Russia inter-government commission (to look after the trade, science & tech, and economy issues and a second one for military and military technology issues).
• Following the top-down approach with two plus two dialogues.
• A joint entrepreneur’s council would yield positive results.
• Enhancing each other’s MRO (Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul) capabilities (for both civil and military aviation).
Cultural Exchanges. Cultural and people-to-people exchanges play a crucial role in fostering understanding and friendship. Promoting tourism, educational exchanges, language programs, and cultural festivals can strengthen cultural ties and promote mutual understanding between the peoples of both countries. India’s skilled manpower can be effectively used to offset Russia’s demographic issues. Travel could be encouraged by a review of the VISA rules to make them travel-friendly, and by Increasing the air and sea travel facilities.
Connectivity and Infrastructure. India’s “Act East” policy and Russia’s focus on Eurasian integration present opportunities for enhancing connectivity and infrastructure development. Collaborative projects such as the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) and the development of the Vladivostok-Chennai Maritime Corridor can facilitate trade, investment, and connectivity between India, Russia, and other countries in the region.
Other areas of possible cooperation include education, the diamond industry, the pharmaceutical industry, biotech and pandemic mitigation, and food security (agro, meat and dairy products). Both countries could jointly develop and promote a globally acceptable carbon emission policy and monitoring system to address environmental concerns.
Conclusion
India-Russia relations have historically been characterised by warmth, mutual respect, and strategic cooperation. However, like any bilateral relationship, there are challenges that both countries face. The geopolitical landscape in South Asia and Eurasia is characterised by complex security challenges, including terrorism, extremism, and regional conflicts. India’s evolving strategic priorities and growing engagement with other powers have raised questions about the future trajectory of its relationship with Russia. Similarly, Russia’s ties with Pakistan and China, have implications for its relationship with India. Despite the diversification of India’s foreign policy and engagements, the relationship with Russia continues to be significant for India’s strategic interests. India and Russia share common concerns about regional stability and security. Bilateral trade and investment between India and Russia have not reached their full potential, and efforts are needed to explore new areas of economic cooperation and address trade imbalances. By leveraging opportunities and deepening cooperation across multiple domains, India and Russia can further strengthen their strategic partnership and contribute to peace, stability, and prosperity in the region and beyond.
References:-
1. Katherine Foshko, “Re-energising the India-Russia Relationship Opportunities and Challenges for the 21st Century” Research Paper No. 3, Gateway House: Indian Council on Global Relations, September 2011.
2. Divyanshu Jindal, “Beyond Defence and Energy: The Future of India-Russia Partnership”, Fair Observer, Jun 23.
3. India Embassy Moscow, “India-Russia Bilateral Relations” brief, https://indianembassy-moscow.gov.in/bilateral-relations-india-russia.php
4. “75 Years of India-Russia Relations (1945-2021)”, FPRC Journal (J-46) 2021, Foreign Policy Research Centre, New Delhi
5. Divya Singh Rathore & Suryapratap Babar, “India-Russia Relations: A Strategic Bear Hug”, Economic Times Government, Jul 7, 2023.
6. Nandan Unnikrishnan and Ankita Dutta, “Tracing the Strategic Dimensions of India-Russia Relations” Special Report, Observer Research Foundation, Nov 2023.
7. “India-Russia Relations in Global Context”, Research and Information System (RIS) Occasional Paper New Series No. 2, January 2018.
8. Stefan Hedlund, “India-Russia relations show renewed spark”, Geopolitical Intelligence Services AG, Feb 23, 2024.
Wrote Exclusive for IIRF.