A Comprehensive Examination of Shivaji’s Military Genius
Col Anil Athale’s The Legacy of Shivaji The Great: Military Strategy, Naval Supremacy and the Maratha Empire is an illuminating study that delves deep into the multifaceted military prowess of one of India’s most revered historical figures, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. This book stands out for its detailed analysis and engaging narrative, making it an essential read for history enthusiasts and military strategists alike.
Military Strategy and Tactics
Athale meticulously breaks down Shivaji’s military strategies, showcasing how he revolutionized warfare in the Indian subcontinent. The author emphasizes Shivaji’s innovative use of guerrilla tactics, fortification, and intelligence, which allowed the Marathas to out manoeuvre and defeat much larger and better-equipped armies. Through vivid descriptions and well-researched accounts, Athale paints a picture of a leader who was always a step ahead of his enemies, using terrain and surprise to his advantage.
Naval Supremacy
One of the most compelling sections of the book is Athale’s exploration of Shivaji’s efforts to establish naval supremacy. The author details the formation of the Maratha navy and how it became a formidable force in the Arabian Sea, challenging the dominance of established powers like the Portuguese and the Siddis. This naval aspect of Shivaji’s reign is often overshadowed by his land campaigns, but Athale brings it to the forefront, arguing convincingly that Shivaji’s vision extended beyond terrestrial conquests to control maritime trade routes and secure coastal defenses.
The Maratha Empire’s Expansion
Athale also provides a broader context by examining the expansion of the Maratha Empire after Shivaji’s death. He highlights how Shivaji’s successors built upon his legacy, expanding their territory and influence. The book delves into the administrative and socio-political reforms initiated by Shivaji, which laid a strong foundation for the empire’s sustainability and growth. Athale’s analysis of the Maratha Empire’s resilience and adaptability offers valuable insights into its enduring legacy.
Research and Sources
Furthermore, the book benefits from a wealth of primary and secondary sources, including historical documents, chronicles, and contemporary accounts. Col Anil Athale’s meticulous research shines through, as he combines these sources with his own analysis and interpretations to present a well-rounded perspective on Shivaji’s military exploits and the socio-political context of his time. The inclusion of maps, illustrations, and photographs enhances the reading experience, providing visual aids that aid in understanding the geographical and strategic aspects of Shivaji’s conquests.
Potential Drawback and Mitigation
If there is one minor drawback to the book, it is the occasional density of information, which may overwhelm readers less familiar with Indian history or military terminology. However, Col Anil Athale’s skillful storytelling and ability to distill complex concepts mitigate this issue to a great extent.
“The Legacy of Shivaji The Great: Military Strategy, Naval Supremacy, and the Maratha Empire” by Col Anil Athale is an outstanding contribution to the understanding of Shivaji’s military genius and his lasting impact on Indian history. Athale’s thorough research, engaging narrative, and insightful analysis make this book a must-read for anyone interested in the life and accomplishments of this legendary warrior king.
Scholarly Rigor and Accessibility
What sets this book apart is Col Anil Athale’s ability to present complex historical information in an accessible and engaging manner. The author strikes a balance between academic rigor and readability, making the book enjoyable for both scholars and general readers interested in Indian history. Athale’s writing style is clear, concise, and compelling, allowing readers to immerse themselves in the narrative effortlessly.
Col Anil Athale’s background as a military historian and retired army officer lends a unique perspective to his writing. His scholarly rigor is evident in the extensive use of primary sources, historical records, and maps that enrich the narrative. However, the book is not just for academics; Athale’s clear and engaging prose makes complex military strategies and historical events accessible to general readers.
Conclusion
The Legacy of Shivaji The Great: Military Strategy, Naval Supremacy and the Maratha Empire is a significant contribution to the historiography of Shivaji Maharaj and the Maratha Empire. Col Anil Athale’s thorough research and insightful analysis provide a nuanced understanding of Shivaji’s military genius and his enduring legacy. This book is a must-read for anyone interested in Indian history, military strategy, and the remarkable story of one of India’s greatest warrior-kings
PART II
One of the most compelling sections of the book is Athale’s exploration of Shivaji’s efforts to establish naval supremacy. The author details the formation of the Maratha navy and how it became a formidable force in the Arabian Sea, challenging the dominance of established powers like the Portuguese and the Siddis. This naval aspect of Shivaji’s reign is often overshadowed by his land campaigns, but Athale brings it to the forefront, arguing convincingly that Shivaji’s vision extended beyond terrestrial conquests to control maritime trade routes and secure coastal defenses.
Shivaji’s Military Legacy
Shivaji’s relentless offensive strategies, emphasis on political objectives in warfare, and vision of pan-Indian Hindu unity laid the groundwork for future Maratha victories. His successors fought and eventually defeated Aurangzeb’s forces after a prolonged 25-year conflict.
A Visionary Leader and His Enduring Legacy
Shivaji’s reign ended in 1680, but his legacy continued. He foresaw the threat posed by the English, and the Marathas later engaged the British in naval warfare. Admiral Kanhoji Angrey’s leadership kept the English at bay on the western coast, securing Maratha dominance in the region. Without Shivaji’s efforts, the subcontinent might have become part of a continuous Islamic belt stretching from Morocco to Indonesia.
Chapter 3-Conflict at Sea (1679-1756)
Opposition on the Western Coast
The British encountered naval resistance only along the western coast of India, specifically from the Marathas. In contrast, their sea approaches in Calcutta and Madras faced little to no opposition.
Shivaji’s Naval Vision
Shivaji was the first modern Indian ruler to recognize the importance of naval power. He built a navy from scratch, understanding that control of the seas was crucial for defending his kingdom and securing trade routes.
The Rise of Kanhoji Angrey
Kanhoji Angrey, born in 1669, played a pivotal role in strengthening the Maratha navy. Under his leadership, the Marathas established four shipbuilding yards, making them a formidable force at sea. His naval strategies were innovative and effective.
Maratha Naval Tactics
One of the Marathas’ favoured methods was to shadow British ships and launch surprise attacks from the rear. They avoided exposing their broadsides, preferring to use a large number of smaller ships to overwhelm larger enemy vessels. This tactic was reminiscent of the “wolf pack” strategy employed by German U-boats during World War II.
British Attempts to Subdue the Maratha Navy
Beginning in 1716, the British made several attempts to weaken the Maratha navy by attacking their stronghold at Vijaydurg. Despite these efforts, the Marathas remained a powerful naval force for several decades.
Decline of the Maratha Navy
Peace prevailed between the Marathas and the British until 1756, when internal dissensions among the Marathas allowed the British, in collaboration with the Peshwa, to destroy the Maratha navy. Kanhoji Angrey had died in 1729, and without his leadership, the navy eventually crumbled.
Strategic Importance of the Maratha Navy
The powerful Maratha navy, under the leadership of Kanhoji Angrey, played a crucial role in protecting the western coast of India. Had it not been for the Maratha naval presence, Bombay might have become the capital of the East India Company instead of Calcutta.
Siege of Bassein
On May 15, 1739, after nearly two years of siege, the Marathas successfully captured the Portuguese stronghold of Bassein, marking a significant victory in their naval campaign.
British Victory and the Fall of the Maratha Navy
The eventual defeat of the Maratha navy by the British left the western coast under British control. The Marathas lost their ability to maintain contact with the west, a significant blow to their influence. This defeat highlighted a recurring issue in Indian history: personal egos and internal conflicts often obscured the larger strategic picture. Financially weak and politically fragmented, the Maratha Peshwas struggled to maintain central authority, with rich provinces controlled by generals who rarely contributed their share of revenue. As history has shown, a strong and financially stable central authority is crucial for a nation’s long-term success.
Chapter 4-Panipat 1761 and the Power Vacuum in India
Transfer of Power to the Peshwas
After the death of Chhatrapati Shahu in 1749, a meeting was convened by Nanasaheb Peshwa and attended by Maratha officials. It was unanimously agreed that all executive powers for governing the state would be transferred to the Peshwas, marking a significant shift in the power structure of the Maratha Empire.
Rise of Modern Governance Institutions
During this period, several modern governance institutions emerged, including village panchayats, the village headman, and revenue officials overseeing groups of villages. These systems, some of which continue to this day, provided stability and organization at the local level. Additionally, a diplomatic corps was established as the Peshwa needed ambassadors in various places, a practice that contributed to the emergence of modern diplomacy.
The Changing Composition of the Peshwa Army
The Peshwa’s army, known as the Huzurat, had three key components: artillery, primarily composed of Muslims and North Indians; infantry, also composed of Muslims and North Indians with firearms; and cavalry, which mainly consisted of part-time Maratha soldiers known as Shiledars. However, the introduction of war elephants into the army was a strategic misstep. Over time, the Maratha army lost its distinct character and became a mercenary force, critically dependent on regular pay.
Meritocracy to Hereditary Rule
Under Bajirao Peshwa, appointments were made based on merit, allowing talented individuals from humble backgrounds to rise to prominence. However, after his time, appointments became increasingly hereditary, diluting the merit-based system that had once been a hallmark of Maratha governance.
Breakdown of Alliances and Internal Conflicts
The Marathas had long maintained alliances with Rajput rulers since the time of Shivaji, but this policy changed under Nanasaheb Peshwa. Involvement in the succession dispute within the House of Jaipur, where Holkar and Shinde supported opposing factions, strained relations with the Rajputs. Additionally, disputes erupted between the Peshwas and other Maratha factions, such as the Gaekwads and Bhonsles, further weakening internal unity.
Strategic Importance of Punjab and Afghan Resistance
The invasion by Nadir Shah in 1740 forced the Marathas to recognize the strategic importance of Punjab. From 1753, a small Maratha garrison was stationed in Delhi to protect the Mughal emperor. However, the Afghans, seeking to restore their dominance, disliked the Maratha presence. Ahmad Shah Abdali, in particular, sought to re-establish Afghan supremacy in Delhi, aided by the Rohillas, a group of Afghans settled north of Delhi.
Maratha Campaign and the Battle of Panipat
In 1760, the Maratha army under Sadashiv Bhau, son of Chimnaji and brother of Bajirao, reached Delhi with an army of about 200,000. However, the political landscape was complicated by alliances and rivalries. The Marathas rejected the Jat ruler Surajmal’s candidature for the post of Prime Minister, opting instead for Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh. This decision cost them the crucial support of the Jats and later, Shuja-ud-Daula also switched sides to join Abdali.
The terrain around Panipat, dominated by Muslims of Afghan descent, further complicated the Marathas’ efforts to secure supplies. Another blunder was carrying a large number of non-combatants, including women and families, which hindered their mobility.
Key Events in the Battle
The Marathas initially held the upper hand in the battle. However, a critical mistake occurred when dismounted Maratha cavalrymen broke ranks and engaged in close combat, forcing the artillery to cease firing. This proved fatal. When Vishwasrao, the eldest son of the Peshwa, was struck by a bullet, Bhau, distraught, left his elephant and joined the hand-to-hand combat. This loss of command led to the Marathas’ near-victory turning into a rout.
Despite heavy casualties on both sides, Abdali’s forces managed to defeat the Marathas. However, on their return journey, Abdali’s army was attacked by Sikhs, who rescued many Maratha prisoners. Some Marathas even settled in the hills of the north, with many marrying Sikh soldiers.
Analysis and Long-Term Effects of the Panipat Defeat
Failure to Form Alliances: Bhau failed to follow Shivaji’s policy of befriending the Rajputs, relying instead on Shuja-ud-Daula, a Shia ruler, to counter Sunni Abdali, overlooking the solidarity within the Islamic world.
Missed Opportunities: The Marathas missed crucial opportunities, such as failing to attack Abdali while he was crossing the Yamuna River. Instead, they were preoccupied with celebrating their earlier victory at Kunjpura, a premature celebration that proved costly.
Strategic Missteps: Unlike Shivaji or Bajirao, who would have travelled light, the Marathas were burdened by the large number of families that accompanied the army. A considerable force under Malharrao Holkar was assigned to protect them, diverting valuable manpower from the battlefield.
Loss of Command: The death of Vishwasrao and Bhau’s emotional reaction led to a collapse in leadership. Despite being on the brink of victory, the Maratha infantry broke ranks, and the battle quickly turned against them.
Impact on the Future of India
The Marathas’ near-victory at Panipat showed the strength of their fighting prowess, but their defeat shattered their offensive spirit. The Afghans, however, suffered so greatly that they abandoned their dreams of ruling Delhi and Hindustan. Abdali’s forces weakened, and Punjab soon came under the control of the Sikhs, who established a powerful state with its capital in Lahore.
The failure to harmonize the cavalry-based warfare of the Marathas with the infantry and artillery-based tactics of their enemies contributed to their defeat. The lack of strong alliances continued to plague the Marathas in their later struggles, including their wars against the British. The Panipat debacle stands as a reminder of the importance of unity, coordination, and strategic foresight in military campaigns.
Chapter 5-The End of the Mughal Empire (1772) and Prelude to the First Anglo-Maratha War (1774-1782)
Aftermath of the Peshwa’s Death
The death of the Peshwa in 1761 created an opportunity for the Nizam of Hyderabad and Hyder Ali of Mysore to expand their influence. However, their attempts to exploit the situation were thwarted by the Marathas, who successfully repelled their advances, maintaining the integrity of Maratha power in the region.
Rise of Mahadji Shinde (Scindia)
Mahadji Shinde, born in 1727, emerged as a formidable leader under the reign of Peshwa Madhavrao. By 1769, alongside Tukoji Holkar, he reasserted Maratha dominance over Delhi and the Mughal Emperor, reviving their influence in North India. Shinde’s leadership marked a resurgence of Maratha power, restoring their hold over strategic regions.
Maratha Revenge on the Rohilla’s
In retaliation for the Rohilla’s support of Ahmad Shah Abdali during the Third Battle of Panipat, Mahadji Shinde led a decisive campaign against them. In one battle, nearly 15,000 Rohilla’s were killed. This victory cemented Maratha control from the banks of the Ganga-Yamuna rivers to the Sutlej, ushering in nearly 30 years of Maratha supremacy in northern India until 1803.
Internal Strife and the Death of Madhavrao
In 1772, Peshwa Madhavrao died and was succeeded by his younger brother Narayanrao. However, Narayanrao was assassinated in 1773, allegedly at the behest of his uncle, Raghunathrao. Justice Ramshastri Prabhune later convicted Raghunathrao for his involvement, further destabilizing the Maratha leadership.
The First Anglo-Maratha War Begins
On December 12, 1774, the British launched an attack on Sashti Island (modern-day Mumbai), marking the beginning of the First Anglo-Maratha War. The Marathas, outnumbered and outmatched by British naval supremacy, lost control of the island. This confrontation set the stage for a protracted conflict between the Marathas and the British East India Company.
The East India Company’s Financial Crisis
In 1772, the East India Company faced financial insolvency, narrowly avoiding collapse by securing a loan. The British Parliament subsequently tightened control over the Company’s operations. Despite the British vulnerability, the Marathas, suffering from internal divisions and depleted financial resources, were unable to capitalize on this opportunity. The breakdown of the traditional revenue-sharing system between local governments and the Maratha central authority further weakened their position.
Treaty of 1776 and Temporary Peace
In 1776, the Marathas and the British reached a temporary agreement. The Marathas retained control of Bassein, while the British held Sashti. Additionally, the British agreed to cease their support for Raghunathrao, who had been a contentious figure within the Maratha leadership.
External Threats and the Prospect of a Maratha-French Alliance
Meanwhile, the British faced another crisis, this time in their North American colonies, which had revolted against British rule. This conflict naturally attracted French involvement, which extended to India. The possibility of a Maratha-French alliance alarmed the British, adding a new dimension to the ongoing Anglo-Maratha rivalry.
Chapter 6 – British Attack on Poona and the Lost Opportunity for Victory
The British Ambition to Install Raghunathrao Peshwa
The British were determined to make Raghunathrao the Peshwa. Both the British and Maratha forces prepared for war. The book provides detailed accounts of these preparations.
The British Campaign and Maratha Countermeasures
The British assembled their forces with the intent to cross the Western Ghats and invade Pune. However, the Marathas cleverly disrupted the British lines of communication, forcing the British to reconsider their plans. In response, the British decided to withdraw under the cover of night. Nana Phadnavis’s network of spies discovered this retreat, and as soon as the British began to pull back, the Maratha cavalry launched a swift attack from both flanks.
The Treaty of Wadgaon (1779)
Caught in a vulnerable position, the British were compelled to sue for peace. This resulted in the Treaty of Wadgaon in 1779, through which the British agreed to return all the territories they had captured since the Treaty of 1756.
Analysis: Lessons from the Battle of Salher and Shivaji Maharaj
Allowed The British To Retreat To Bombay
In the Battle of Salher (1672), Shivaji’s generals showed no mercy to the Mughal forces, utterly crushing the enemy. Similarly, Shivaji Maharaj decisively defeated the enemy at Pratapgarh. However, in this instance, the Marathas allowed the British to retreat to Bombay rather than pursuing them to finish the conflict.
A Missed Opportunity to Evict the British from Bombay
The Marathas had a golden opportunity to strike at Bombay and drive the British out. The conditions were highly favorable, and a more decisive approach could have significantly altered the course of history. This scenario offers a vital lesson: learning from the military strategies of Shivaji Maharaj, who would never have let such an opportunity slip by.
The Resumption of Hostilities and the End of Maratha Unity
Hostilities resumed as soon as the Bengal Army reached Bombay. The Battle of Wadgaon marked the last time the Marathas fought unitedly against the British. Prior to this, in 1775, the Battle of Addas saw both sides claim victory. It was also the first time the British army faced the formidable Maratha cavalry and their main army.
Chapter 7-The Second Anglo-Maratha War: A Coalition Against the British
The Formation of the Anti-British Alliance
In 1780, the Marathas, Nizam, and Hyder Ali formed a formidable alliance against the British. The Marathas pledged to keep the British army under Colonel Goddard engaged, while Hyder Ali aimed to capture Madras. The Nizam promised to assist Hyder Ali, and the Bhonsles of Nagpur were to attack Bengal. The alliance agreed not to negotiate a separate peace with the British.
The Bhonsles and the British
Despite being part of the alliance, the Bhonsles of Nagpur had a strained relationship with the Peshwas. The Bhonsles believed they were equals to the Peshwas and, relying heavily on a paid army that was predominantly non-Maratha, were constantly in need of funds. Financial resources were crucial for any government.
The Bhonsles’ army, marching towards Bengal, alarmed the British. The Bhonsles demanded a hefty sum of 20 lakhs, and after negotiations, an agreement was reached. During the negotiations, the British assembled a force to attack Mahadji Shinde in the north. The Bhonsles allowed the British forces to pass through Orissa to aid the Madras Presidency, which was under attack from Hyder Ali.
The Gaikwad’s Defection
In 1780, Fateh Singh Gaikwad became the first Maratha general to accept British protection, weakening the alliance.
Meanwhile, the British and Marathas clashed at Malanggad, a mountain fort.
Maratha Victories and Limitations
Goddard captured Bassein in 1780, a significant loss for the Marathas. The British planned to attack Poona but failed, and the Marathas recaptured most of the coastal territories they had lost since 1774, except for Bassein and Sashti. This was a major defensive victory for the Marathas.
The Alliance’s Shortcomings
Despite the Maratha victory against Goddard’s army, the alliance was hampered by the Bhonsles’ inactivity in Orissa and Mahadji Shinde’s limited success in the north.
Conclusion
The book benefits from a wealth of primary and secondary sources, including historical documents, chronicles, and contemporary accounts. Col Anil Athale’s meticulous research shines through, as he combines these sources with his own analysis and interpretations to present a well-rounded perspective on Shivaji’s military exploits and the socio-political context of his time. The inclusion of maps, illustrations, and photographs enhances the reading experience, providing visual aids that aid in understanding the geographical and strategic aspects of various wars.
PART III
“The Legacy of Shivaji The Great: Military Strategy, Naval Supremacy, and the Maratha Empire” by Col Anil Athale is an outstanding contribution to the understanding of Shivaji’s military genius and his lasting impact on Indian history. Athale’s thorough research, engaging narrative, and insightful analysis make this book a must-read for anyone interested in the life and accomplishments of this legendary warrior king.
Scholarly Rigor and Accessibility
What sets this book apart is Col Anil Athale’s ability to present complex historical information in an accessible and engaging manner. The author strikes a balance between academic rigor and readability, making the book enjoyable for both scholars and general readers interested in Indian history. Athale’s writing style is clear, concise, and compelling, allowing readers to immerse themselves in the narrative effortlessly.
Col Anil Athale’s background as a military historian and retired army officer lends a unique perspective to his writing. His scholarly rigor is evident in the extensive use of primary sources, historical records, and maps that enrich the narrative. However, the book is not just for academics; Athale’s clear and engaging prose makes complex military strategies and historical events accessible to general readers.
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CH 8The Treaty of Salbai: A Diplomatic Victory for the Marathas
The Treaty of Salbai (1783)
The Treaty of Salbai, signed in 1783, marked a significant diplomatic victory for the Marathas. In exchange for peace, the British relinquished all their conquests except Sashti. The treaty also restored Fateh Singh Gaikwad to the Maratha domain and confined Raghunathrao for his involvement in the murder of Narayanrao Peshwa. In return, the Marathas agreed to avoid future involvement with the French.
The First Anglo-Maratha War
The First Anglo-Maratha War, which lasted from 1774 to 1783, saw the Marathas employ cavalry tactics to harass the British and disrupt their logistics. However, the British countered with a scorched-earth policy, devastating the local population and alienating the Marathas from their own people.
Maratha Military Strengths and Weaknesses
The Marathas possessed a formidable weapon in their war-rockets, operated by the non-Maratha Gardis. However, their fighting style differed significantly from the British infantry-artillery system. The British army fought as a unified force, while the Marathas, like other Indian armies, excelled at the unit level but struggled to maintain control during large-scale battles.
British Advantages
The British enjoyed a significant advantage in terms of financial resources, thanks to the vast revenue generated by the Bengal Presidency. In contrast, the Marathas had limited resources in Maharashtra, and the large territories under the king of Kolhapur did not participate in the fighting.
The Importance of Naval Power
The Marathas paid a heavy price for neglecting their navy, which had been destroyed by the British in 1756. Naval power is crucial for controlling trade routes and protecting coastal regions.
Mahadji Shinde’s Reforms
Mahadji Shinde recognized the importance of infantry and artillery and established gun and musket factories in Agra, Ujjain, and Mathura. However, he failed to establish institutions for training and studying the art of weapon-making, making his forces overly dependent on European mercenaries.
The Decline of the Peshwa
The rise of Mahadji Shinde marked a decline in the power and importance of the Peshwa. By the early 19th century, the Maratha kingdom had become unrecognizable from the one established by Shivaji. The traditional emphasis on birth and lineage, which Shivaji had strongly disapproved of, had become paramount.
Mahadji Shinde’s Military Achievements
Mahadji Shinde raised an efficient artillery force and infantry, becoming the virtual ruler of northern India. As Deputy to the Peshwa, he had the authority to intervene in any part of India, including Bengal. The Rajput rulers were forced to pay taxes to the Marathas, which they resented.
The Battle of Lalsot and Beyond
In the Battle of Lalsot, the combined Rajput forces defeated the Marathas. Mahadji Shinde responded by forming an alliance with the Sikhs and recruited them to his army. With this strengthened force, he defeated the Rajput rulers of Jaipur, Jodhpur, and Jaipur, forcing them to pay taxes to the Marathas.
The Failure to Create an Anti-British Front
The British refused to pay the Marathas their share of the revenues from Bengal. Shinde attempted to form an anti-British alliance but failed due to lack of support.
The Legacy of Mahadji Shinde
Mahadji Shinde, the last great Maratha general, passed away in Poona in 1794. Although he recognized the need to modernize the Maratha armies, his over-reliance on European mercenaries and failure to train Indian soldiers in the European art of war proved to be a significant limitation.
1005-Chapter 10: War in the South – The Battle of Assaye and Beyond
Maratha Strategies and British Adaptation
The Marathas were adept at disrupting British supply lines during the early stages of conflict. To counter this, the British organized a corps of bullocks to transport supplies and employed the Banjara tribe as traveling tradesmen to ensure steady provisions for their army.
British Control and Maratha Leadership Crisis
Marching from the south, the British installed Bajirao II as Peshwa under the terms of the Treaty of Bassein. They sought to exploit internal divisions within the Maratha Empire by trying to separate Yashwantrao Holkar from Daulatrao Shinde. Meanwhile, Raghuji Bhonsle assumed leadership among the Marathas but struggled to unite the factions.
Maratha Forces and Internal Betrayal
The Maratha army comprised the forces of Shinde and Bhonsle. However, their European-trained troops, under the command of Pohlman and Peron, were unreliable. Pohlman requested to be relieved, and Begum Sumru was secretly in communication with the British. Peron, the chief of Shinde’s European-trained forces, also began negotiating to switch sides.
The Battle of Assaye: A Turning Point
The Battle of Assaye marked a critical moment in the war. The Marathas’ greatest failure was in their intelligence capabilities, as they failed to track the movements of British forces. The battle, which lasted barely three hours from 3:00 PM to 6:00 PM, saw the British suffer 1,200 casualties while the Marathas lost around 2,000 soldiers. Despite the heavy losses, Shinde’s army retreated towards the Ajanta Ghat. The British forces, under Wellington, were too weakened to pursue them, but the damage to Maratha morale was significant.
The Absence of Bhonsle’s Army
Raghuji Bhonsle’s army did not engage in the battle. The Marathas had hoped to avoid giving the British a pitched battle, but the lack of coordination weakened their overall efforts.
Aftermath of Assaye: A Blow to Maratha Reputation
Although the British faced tough resistance, the Battle of Assaye was a psychological victory for them. It severely dented the reputation of Shinde’s forces, and the morale of the Maratha army took a significant hit. Had Holkar joined forces with Shinde and Bhonsle, the outcome could have been very different. This battle stands as one of the most decisive in Indian history.
The Battle of Laswari: Fierce Resistance in the North
In the north, the Battle of Laswari, fought near Agra, pitted General Lake against Shinde’s army. The battle featured intense hand-to-hand combat and demonstrated that, under capable leadership, Indian soldiers could still offer fierce resistance. The battle also marked the end of Shinde’s European-styled battalions. After the defeat of Abuji Ingle at Laswari, Shinde initiated peace talks with the British.
The Collapse of Maratha Power
Following the defeat at Laswari, Raghuji Bhonsle also sought peace, ceding the province of Cuttack in Orissa to the British and Bidar to the Nizam. Shinde was confined to a small region around Ujjain. With Shinde and Bhonsle out of the fight, the British now focused their efforts on subduing Holkar. The Marathas, who had once dreamed of an Indian empire, were now fighting for survival.
Yashwantrao Holkar: The Last Maratha Leader
Yashwantrao Holkar was a brilliant cavalry leader and maintained strong relations with the Jats and Sikhs. In 1804, he fought the British fiercely. His victories briefly caused local princes and rulers to desert the British and join the Maratha cause. However, by January 1805, General Lake had surrounded Bharatpur Fort, leading to a prolonged siege. Continuous fighting strained both sides, and in April 1806, the British offered a truce to the Jats.
Peace Under Lord Cornwallis
When Lord Cornwallis became Governor-General, he sought peace with the Marathas. A treaty was signed in which the British gave up most of their conquests from the Second Anglo-Maratha War. This marked the beginning of the end for Maratha power.
Analysis of the Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805)
- End of the Maratha Confederacy
The Second Anglo-Maratha War, which lasted for two years, marked the end of the Maratha Confederacy. A lack of unity, intelligence failures, and poor coordination among the Maratha leaders contributed to their downfall. The absence of a fully functioning government outside Pune weakened their ability to respond effectively to the British.
- Reliance on European Mercenaries
The Marathas’ heavy reliance on European mercenaries, many of whom had divided loyalties, was a significant reason for their defeat. French soldiers in the Maratha ranks kept their wealth in British banks and depended on British ships to return to Europe, making their commitment questionable.
- The Decline of Maratha Ideology
Shivaji’s ideology of Hindavi Swarajya had faded by this time. Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath had accepted the status of the Marathas as Mughal vassals, leading to a perception of the Marathas as mere tax collectors for the Mughals outside Maharashtra.
- Composition of the Maratha Army
By the time of the Second Anglo-Maratha War, the Maratha armies were Maratha in name only. Many of the soldiers were Muslims, Jats, Sikhs, or recruits from Awadh, and they shared close ties with Indian soldiers in the Bengal British Army.
- Inferior Weapons and Tactics
The Marathas suffered from inferior weaponry, especially in artillery. The war rockets, which had been effective in previous conflicts, were not used in this war. The British ensured that no Indian had access to the magazines and laboratories where explosives and ammunition were manufactured.
- Lack of Local Support
The Marathas, who had once relied on strong local support in their wars against the Mughals, found themselves without such support in their battles against the British.
- Complacency During Peace
When Cornwallis made peace with the Marathas, they became complacent. However, peace should have been a time for the Marathas to strengthen themselves. Meanwhile, the British, strengthened by the Industrial Revolution, were only becoming more powerful.
The Final Conflict (1818-1823)
The last phase of the Maratha-British struggle took place between 1818 and 1823, marking the final defeat of the Marathas and the consolidation of British dominance over India.
590-Chapter 11: Struggle for Empire – The Final Act (1817-1818)
The Treaty of 1805 and Its Consequences
In 1805, Daulatrao Shinde signed a treaty with the British, bringing temporary peace to the Maratha-British conflict. Meanwhile, General Lake, in pursuit of Yashwantrao Holkar, advanced to within 50 kilometers of Amritsar and threatened Maharaja Ranjit Singh with dire consequences if he assisted Holkar. Yielding to the pressure, Ranjit Singh asked Holkar to leave Punjab. In frustration, Holkar signed the Treaty of Rajghat in November 1805 and died in 1811.
Wasted Opportunity During Peace (1805-1817)
The 13-year period of peace between the Marathas and the British (1805-1817) was squandered by the Maratha leadership. Instead of modernizing their forces and strengthening their empire, leaders like Bajirao II and Daulatrao Shinde were preoccupied with personal indulgences. This was a crucial mistake, as peace should have been used to build military strength and address the weaknesses exposed during earlier conflicts.
Decline in Maratha Principalities
In the Maratha principalities, governance and military discipline deteriorated. In Nagpur, Appasaheb Bhonsle usurped the throne by killing Raghuji Bhonsle’s son, Parsoji, with British support. Shinde, engrossed in a life of luxury, neglected his duties. Unlike the period between 1783 and 1802, the years between 1805 and 1817 saw a sharp decline in the Maratha army’s effectiveness and organization.
The Rise of the Pindaris
The Pindaris, primarily composed of disbanded Mughal soldiers from North India, with a significant percentage being Muslims, grew in strength during this period. By the early 19th century, they had become a significant force, and the British viewed them as a threat, launching campaigns to neutralize them.
Shinde’s Capitulation and the Loss of Forts
In 1817, Shinde surrendered the Asirgarh Fort and Burhanpur to the British, signaling a further weakening of Maratha power. These forts, which once symbolized Maratha strength, were handed over without significant resistance.
The Battle of Mehdipur (1817)
In 1817, Tulsibai, the widow of Yashwantrao Holkar, led a fierce battle against the British at Mehdipur. Despite her efforts, the Holkar power was decisively broken. Around the same time, Appasaheb Bhonsle of Nagpur suffered defeat and became a puppet of the British, marking the end of Maratha sovereignty in Nagpur.
Bajirao II’s Ill-Fated Resistance
Peshwa Bajirao II attempted to challenge the British but faced overwhelming odds without the support of Shinde and Holkar. The British forces he encountered were nearly ten times the size of his own army, leaving him little chance of success.
Maratha Passivity During British-Nepali Conflict
When the British Bengal Army was engaged in a war against Nepal in 1814, the Marathas chose to remain passive, mistakenly believing that British non-interference in Maratha affairs would continue indefinitely. This strategic miscalculation would soon prove disastrous.
Mercenaries and the Ineffectiveness of Maratha Forces
By the time of the Third Anglo-Maratha War, much of the Maratha fighting force was composed of musket-wielding mercenaries. The once-feared Maratha cavalry proved ineffective against the disciplined British infantry and artillery. The mountain forts, which had played a crucial role during Shivaji’s era, had fallen into neglect, further weakening the Maratha military’s capacity. Leadership, too, was uninspiring, contributing to their final defeat.
Analysis
The final act of the Maratha struggle for empire (1817-1818) revealed the deep-rooted issues within the Maratha Confederacy—lack of modernization, ineffective leadership, and the reliance on outdated tactics. Despite some valiant efforts, the once-mighty Marathas were no match for the organized and technologically superior British forces, leading to their ultimate downfall and the consolidation of British rule in India.
621-Reasons for the Maratha Failure
Destruction of the Navy (1756)
The Marathas were responsible for the destruction of their own navy in 1756. This left the western coast vulnerable, allowing the British to establish a foothold and maintain a presence in key coastal areas, which ultimately weakened Maratha control over their territories.
Missed Opportunity After the Battle of Wadgaon (1779)
Despite their victory in the Battle of Wadgaon in 1779, the Marathas failed to capitalize on their success. Instead of decisively crushing the British forces, they allowed the enemy to retreat and recover, missing a critical opportunity to eliminate British influence in the region.
Betrayal by European Mercenaries
A major factor in the Maratha defeat was the betrayal by European mercenaries, particularly during the Battle of Assaye and subsequent battles in northern India. These mercenaries, who had been integral to the Maratha military, switched sides, leaving the Marathas vulnerable to British attacks.
Lack of Offensive Spirit
The Marathas exhibited a defensive rather than an offensive approach during the Second and Third Anglo-Maratha Wars. This lack of aggression, combined with passive military strategies, weakened their ability to take decisive action against the British forces.
Underdeveloped Infantry and Artillery
The Marathas failed to modernize and develop key military units such as infantry and artillery. While the British forces were equipped with advanced artillery and well-trained infantry, the Marathas relied on outdated tactics, which contributed significantly to their defeat.
Compromised Leadership and Loss of Vision
Successive Peshwas compromised the original Maratha ideals, reducing the empire to mere tax collectors for the British. The larger goal of establishing Hindavi Swarajya—a vision of a self-ruled Hindu nation—was lost, and the leadership became focused on short-term gains and maintaining their own power.
Dynastic Rule and Favoritism
After the third Peshwa, the Maratha leadership became increasingly dynastic, promoting leaders based on lineage rather than merit. In contrast to the British, who cultivated strong junior leadership, the Peshwas began favoring their own community and alienating others. This divisive approach further eroded Maratha unity, which had been a hallmark of Shivaji and Bajirao I’s reigns.
Political Disunity
Political disunity, a significant issue during the Second Anglo-Maratha War, continued to plague the Marathas. The lack of cohesion between different factions and leaders prevented the Marathas from presenting a united front against the British.
Reliance on Imported Arms and Foreign Mercenaries
The Marathas depended heavily on imported arms, gunpowder, and foreign mercenaries for their military strength. This reliance on external resources created a significant vulnerability, as the British were able to cut off these supplies and gain the loyalty of key foreign fighters.
Regionalism Diminished Shivaji’s Legacy
The rise of parochial regional parties in Maharashtra reduced the national standing of Shivaji Maharaj. Once viewed as a hero for all of India, Shivaji began to be regarded primarily as a Maratha king, which diminished his influence as a symbol of resistance against foreign rule.
Misconception of India’s Peaceful Independence
The commonly held belief that India achieved independence through peaceful means has shaped a national psyche that elevates victimhood as an achievement. This view overlooks the role of resistance movements like those led by Shivaji and the Marathas, who played a critical role in preventing India from being entirely Islamized during the Mughal era.
Conclusion
While the Marathas achieved great successes in their early years, internal weaknesses—ranging from political disunity to military inefficiency—combined with external factors such as betrayal by mercenaries and reliance on foreign arms, led to their downfall. Despite their eventual defeat, the legacy of Shivaji and the Marathas remains significant in India’s history, particularly for their resistance to foreign domination and the preservation of Indian culture.
The Legacy of Shivaji The Great: Military Strategy, Naval Supremacy and the Maratha Empire is a significant contribution to the historiography of Shivaji Maharaj and the Maratha Empire. Col Anil Athale’s thorough research and insightful analysis provide a nuanced understanding of Shivaji’s military genius and his enduring legacy. This book is a must-read for anyone interested in Indian history, military strategy, and the remarkable story of one of India’s greatest warrior-kings.
